Matter, anything that has mass and takes up space Chemical substance, a material with a definite chemical composition Substance theory, an ontological theory positing that a substance is distinct from its properties
ISubstance dependence, yi-drug enxulumene nokukhathalelwa kwempilo kwanomthetho ojongene nokufumanisa unobangela weziyobisi ekuhlaleni. I-Matter, nantoni na enobunzima obubizwa ngokuba yi-mass, ize kwaloo nto ikwazi ukuthatha indawo kuloo ndawo ibekwe kuyo. Umzekelo, ikomotyi inobunzima bayo, kwaye xa ibekwe endaweni, loo ndawo ikuyo ikomityi ithathwe yikomotyi.
Relating to drugs
Okunye okunxulumene ngee-drugs
Substance
Ii-substances
A frog in frogspawn
Isele kwi-frogspawn - ingubo yamasele
In biology, offspring is the product of reproduction of a new organism produced by one or, in the case of sexual reproduction, two parents.
Ngokwe-biology, inzala sisiqhamo sokwanda kwesidalwa esiphefumlayo siqhanyiswa sesinye okanye, xakusenzeka i-sexual reproduction, abazali ababini.
Collective offspring may be known as a brood or progeny in a more general way.
Ingqokolela yenzalo isenokwaziwa njenge-brood okanye i-progeny ngokwesiqhelo.
This can refer to a set of simultaneous offspring, such as the chicks hatched from one clutch of eggs, or to all the offspring, as with the honeybee.
Oku kunokubhekisa kwingqokolela yesizalo esivela ngaxeshanye, esifana namantshontso enkukhu aqanduselweyo kwingqokolela enye yamaqanda, okanye kuzo zonke kuyo yonke inzalo njengakubusi beenyosi.
Human offspring (descendants) are referred to as children (without reference to age, thus one can refer to a parent's "minor children" or "adult children" or "infant children" or "teenage children"); male children are sons and female children are daughters (see kinship and descent).
Inzalo yabantu (isizukulwana) babizwa ngokuba ngabantwana (kungajingwanga minyaka yabydala, kusenokuthiwa kumzali womntwana omncinci, okanye ''abantwana abadala" okanye "iimveku" okanye "abantwana abaselula"); abantwana abangamakhwenkwe ngoonyana baze abangamantombazana bona babeziintombi (jonga kwii-kinship and descent).
Offspring can occur after mating or after artificial insemination.
Inzalo isenokwenzeka emva kokuba abazali bobabini bethe badibana okanye emva kokuba kwenzeke i- artificial insemination.
The offspring of an individual contains many parts and properties that are very precise and accurate in what they consist of, and thus what they define for.
Inzalo yomntu ngamnye inamalungu kwaneempawu zokuzala ezininzi, ezenza okokuba zicace gca futhi zingathandabuzeki izinto ezakhiwe ngazo, nengcagciso ngazo.
As the offspring of a new species, also known as a child or f1 generation, consist of genes of the father and the mother, which is also known as the parent generation.[1] Each of these offspring contains numerous genes which have coding for specific tasks and properties.
Njengoko isizalo sohlobo olutsha lwesidalwa esiphilayo, sikwabizwa ngokuba ngumntwana okanye yi-sisizukulwana se-f1, sisenziwa zii-genes zikanina noyise, nabakwaziwa ngokuba sisizukulwana esingabazali. [1] Isizukulwana ngasinye kwezi sinenqwaba yee-genes nezinophawu ngomsebebzi ngamnye nangeempawu zazo.
Males and females both contribute equally to the genotypes of their offspring, in which gametes fuse and form. An important aspect of the formation of the parent offspring is the chromosome, which is a structure of DNA which contains many genes.[2]
Iinkunzi neemazi zombini zinenkxaso elinganayo kwii-genotypes zabantwa bazo abaziziqhamo zokudibana kwabo, apho ii-gametes zidi zidibane zimanyane kuze kubekho into eyenzekayo. umba obaluleke kakhulu ekwenzekeni kwesizalo somzali yi-chromosome, nesisakhiwo se-DNA esinee-genes ezininzi.[2]
To focus more on the offspring and how it results in the formation of the f1 generation, is an inheritance called sex-linkage,[3] which is a gene which is located on the sex chromosome and patterns of these inheritance differ in both male and female.
Ukuqwalasela ngakumbi kwisizalo nasekubeni senzeka njani na isizalo sesizukulwana se-f1, lufuzo olubizwa ngokuba yi- sex-linkage,[3] nekuyi-gene ebuthume phaya kwi-sex chromosome kwaye izakhiwo zolu fuzo zahlukile kwinkunzi nakwimazi.
The explanation that proves the theory of the offspring having genes from both parent generations, is proven through a process called crossing-over, which consists of taking genes from the male chromosomes and genes from the female chromosome, resulting in a process of meiosis occurring, and leading to the splitting of the chromosomes evenly.[4] Depending on which genes are dominantly expressed in the gene will result in the sex of the offspring.
Inkcazo ebonisa itheori ye-offspring inee-genes kwizizukulwana macala omabaini abazali, iye yafezekiswa ngenkqubo ebizwa ngokuba yi-crossing-over, apho ke kuthathwa ii-genes kwii-chromosomes zenkunzi nee-genes kwii-chromosomes zethokazi, ize ke isiqhamo saloo nto ibe yinkqubo ye-meiosis ethi yenzeke, loo nto ikhokhelela ekubeni ziqhekeke kubini ke ii-chromosomes ngokulinganayo. [4] Kuyakuthi ke kusakubonakala okokuba ziziphi ii-genes ezizingqonyela ngobukho kwi-chromosomes kucace isini saloo nto izakuzalwa.
The female will always give an X chromosome, whereas the male, depending on the situation, will either give an X chromosome or a Y chromosome.
Ithokazi liyakukhupha i-chromosome engu-X, ngeli lixa yona inkunzi isenokukhupha i-chromosome engu-X okanye engu-Y.
If a male offspring is produced, the gene will consist of an X and a Y chromosome.
Ukuba kuye kwazalwa inkunzi, i-gene iyakuba nee-chromosomes ezingu-X no-Y.
If two X chromosomes are expressed and produced, it produces a female offspring.[5]
Ukuba ii-chromosomes zibe ngoo-X zombini, kuyakuzalwa ithokazi.[5]
Cloning is the production of an offspring which represents the identical genes as its parent.
I-Cloning kukuzalwa kwe-offspring emele ii-genes ezifana nqwa nomzali wazo.
Reproductive cloning begins with the removal of the nucleus from an egg, which holds the genetic material.[6] In order to clone an organ, a stem cell is to be produced and then utilized to clone that specific organ.[7] A common misconception of cloning is that it produces an exact copy of the parent being cloned.
Inzala ye-cloning iqala ngokususwa kwe-nucleus eqandeni, nekuyeyona nto ilawula ubuni bee-genes.[6] Ukuze kwenzeke inkqubo ye-clone kwi-organ, kwenzeka isiqu se-cell ze sisetyenziselwe ukuba zi-clon-e loo organ.[7] Impazamo exhaphakileyo kwinkqubo ye-cloning yeyokuba kuzalwa kuyo isidalwa esifana nqwa nomzali lowo kwenzeke kuye le nkqubo ye-cloned.
Cloning copies the DNA/genes of the parent and then creates a genetic duplicate.
I-Cloning ikopa ii-DNA/genes zomzali ize ke ngoko yenze iikopi ze-genes ezo.
The clone will not be a similar copy as he or she will grow up in different surroundings from the clone and may encounter different opportunities and experiences.
I-clone ayinakuba ngumceph'ucandiwe njengoko isayakukhula kwiindawo ngeendawo ezijikeleze i-clone kwaye esenokufumana amathuba ngamathuba kwakunye namava.
Although mostly positive, cloning also faces some setbacks in terms of ethics and human health.
Nangona uninzi lwazo zii-positive, i-cloning isoloko ijongene nemingeni ngokwee-ethics nangokwempilo yoluntu.
Though cell division and DNA replication is a vital part of one surviving, there are many steps involved such as enzymes and proteins.
Nangona ukwahlulwa-hlulwa kwe-cell nokuphindwa-phindwa kwe-DNA izezona zinto zidlala indima enkulu empilweni yomntu, maninzi amanyathelo abandakanyekayo anjengee-enzymes nee-proteins.
Thus, many errors and problems that can occur, which are called mutations.
Oko kuthetha okokuba ziininzi iimpazamo, neengxaki ezisenokwenzeka, nezibizwa ngokuba zii-mutations.
A mutation is any permanent change in an organism's DNA and thus change in offspring’s DNA.[8] Some mutations can be good as they result in random evolution periods in which may be good for the species, but most mutations are bad as they can change the genotypes of offspring, which can result in changes that harm the species.
I-mutation lulo naluphi na utshintsho olusisigxina kwi-organism ye-DNA kwaye olo tshintsho lukwi-offspring ye-DNA.[8] Ezinye ii-mutations zingazezilungileyo kuba zivela kumaxesha e-random evolution nezisenokulungela ezinye iintlobo, kodwa uninzi lwee-mutations zimbi njengoko zisenokutshintsha ii-genotypes zenzala, nokunokuthi kwenze utshintsho olunokungoza ezinye iintlobo zendalo.
See also
jonga nalapha
References
Nanga amanye amaphepha ekusekelezelwe kulo olu lwazi.
Retrieved 1 April 2014. ↑ "cloning" (PDF).
Retrieved 1 April 2014. ↑ "cloning". http://www.precaution.org/lib/cloned_animals.nejm.041230.pdf.
Retrieved 1 April 2014. ↑ "mutation".
Retrieved 1 April 2014. ↑ "mutation". http://mnemstudio.org/genetic-algorithms-mutation.htm.
Retrieved 1 April 2014.
Retrieved 1 April 2014.
Offspring
Inzala
Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of social science.
I-Developmental studies sisifundo sokukhulisa nokuphuhlisa esilisebe le-multidisciplinary ye-social science.
Development studies is offered as a specialized Master's degree in a number of universities, and, less commonly, as an undergraduate degree. It has grown in popularity as a subject of study since the early 1990s, and has been most widely taught and researched in the third world and in countries with a colonial history, such as the UK, where development studies originated.[1] Students of development studies often choose careers in international organisations such as the United Nations, World Bank, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), private sector development consultancy firms, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) bodies and research centers.
Ezi zifundo zijongene nokukhulisa kwanokuphuhlisa zifumaneka kwinqanaba le-Master's degree kwiiyunivethi eziliqela, ngeli lixa zingaxhaphakanga kuyaphi kwinqanaba le-undergraduate degree. ukususela euqaleni kweminyaka yee-1990s, kwaye besisoloko sisesona sifundo kufundiswe ngaso ngokubanzi kwaza kwaqhutywa kuso ezophando kwi-third world nakumazwe anembali yobukomanisi, amazwe afana ne-UK, apho isifundo se-development studies sisuka khona.[1] Abafundi be-development studies bavamise ukukhetha ii-careers zabo kwii-international organisations ezifana ne-United Nations, i-World Bank, i-Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), i-private sector development consultancy firms, i-Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) bodies kunye namaziko ezophando.
Professional Bodies
Ii-bhodi ezi-Professional
Throughout the world, a number of professional bodies for Development Studies have been founded:[2]
Amaqela eebhodi ezi-professional kwi-Development Studies afumaneke kulo lonke ihlabathi jekelele:[2]
Europe: European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI) Latin America: Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO) Asia: Asian Political and International Studies Association (APISA) Africa: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA) Arabic world: Arab Institutes and Centers for Economic and Social Development Research (AICARDES)
EYurophu: Iqumrhu le-European Association of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI) E-Latin America: Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO) E-Asia: Asian Political and International Studies Association (APISA) E-Africa: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) and Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA) E-Arabic world: Arab Institutes and Centers for Economic and Social Development Research (AICARDES)
The common umbrella organisation of these association is the Inter-regional Coordinating Committee of Development Associations (ICCDA).
Ewonke la mabhunga aphantsi kwephiko lombutho i-Inter-regional Coordinating Committee of Development Associations (ICCDA).
In the UK and Ireland, the Development Studies Association is a major source of information for research on and studying in development studies.
E-UK nase-Ireland, iqumrhu le-development Studies lingowona mthombo mkhulu wolwazi lophando nowofundiswa nokufunda banzi kwi-development studies.
Its mission is to connect and promote those working on development research.
Umsebenzi walo kukuxhumanisa nokunyusela okanye ukuphakamisa abo basebenzela ukuphuhlisa nokukhulisa i-development research.
Disciplines of development studies
Ii-Disciplines (izifundo) ze-development studies
Development issues include:
Imibandela ye-Development (yokukhulisa nokuphuhlisa) iquka oku kulandelayo:
History
Imbali
The emergence of development studies as an academic discipline in the second half of the twentieth century is in large part due to increasing concern about economic prospects for the third world after decolonisation.
Ukungxamiseka nokuxheshwa kwe-development studies ukuze ibe yi-academic discipline kwihafu yesibini yamashumi amabini enkulungwane yeminyaka, yinto ebekufaneleke ukuba sele ikho nanjengoko kusiya kusanda ukuphawula ngalo mbono wezoqoqosho kwi-third world emva kwe-decolonisation.
In the immediate post-war period, development economics, a branch of economics, arose out of previous studies in colonial economics.
Ixesha lesaquphe emva kwemfazwe, i-development economics, isebe le-economics, lintshule kwizifundo zangaphambili ezaziqhutywa nge-colonial economics.
By the 1960s, an increasing number of development economists felt that economics alone could not fully address issues such as political effectiveness and educational provision.[3] Development studies arose as a result of this, initially aiming to integrate ideas of politics and economics.
Ngeminyaka yoo-1960, ukwanda kwenani leengcali zophuhliso loqoqosho labonakalisa okokuba i-economics iyodwa ayinakujongana ngokupheleleyo nemiba efana nopolitiko olunamandla kunye nemfundo ebekelwe ukuxhasa.[3] I-Development studies yavela ngenxa yoku, ukuqala kwayo yayijolise ekudibaniseni imibono ye-zopolitiko neyezoqoqosho.
Since then, it has become an increasingly inter- and multi-disciplinary subject, encompassing a variety of social scientific fields.[4] In recent years the use of political economy analysis- the application of the analytical techniques of economics- to try and assess and explain political and social factors that either enhance or limit development has become increasingly widespread as a way of explaining the success or failure of reform processes.
Ukusukela ngoko, ibe sisifundo esiluhlobo lwe-inter- and multi-disciplinary, sisisifundo esididiyelwe ngeentlobo-ntlobo ze-social scientific fields.[4] Kutsha nje kule minyaka igqithileyo ukubaluleka kwe-political economy analysis, ukusetyenziswa kwe-analytical techniques ze-economic, ukuhlola nokucacisa imiba yezopolitiko neyasekuhlaleni, isenokuphakamisa okanye yehlise ukukhula okanye uphuhliso kuyinto esuke yathatha unyawo ngokuthi inwenwele ngakumbi njengendlela yokucacisa impumelelo okanye ukuphanza kweenkqubo zokwakha ngokutsha.
The era of modern development is commonly deemed to have commenced with the inauguration speech of Harry S. Truman in 1949.
Ixesha lophuhliso lanamhlanje lusoloko livamise ukukholelwa ngokuqala ngentetho ye-inauguration kaHarry S. Truman ngo-1949.
In Point Four of his speech, with reference to Latin America and other poor nations, he said that "for the first time in history, humanity possess[ed] the knowledge and skill to relieve the suffering of these people.".[5] But development studies has since also taken an interest in lessons of past development experiences of Western countries.
Kwinqaku lesine entethweni yakhe, ebhekisa kwi-Latin America nakwamanye amazwe ahlwempuzekileyo, waathi "okokuqala ezimbalini, ubuntu bunolwazi kubo kwanesakhono sokhulula aba bantu kwintlupheko abakuyo.".[5] Kodwa i-development studies okokoko yabeka umdla wayo kumava esiwafumene kwizifundo zamandulo ezazibanjwa e-Western countries.
More recently, the emergence of human security – a new, people-oriented approach to understanding and addressing global security threats – has led to a growing recognition of a relationship between security and development.
Kutsha nje, ukungxamiseka kwe-human security – indlela entsha yokwazisa abantu ukuze baziqonde bathethe nokuthetha ngezoyikiso ezichaphazela ukhuseleko lwehlabathi – ikhokhelele ekubeni kukhula kangakanani na ukuqonda ubudlelwane phakathi kokhuseleko nophuhliso.
Human security argues that inequalities and insecurity in one state or region have consequences for global security and that it is thus in the interest of all states to address underlying development issues.
Ukhuseleko loluntu luthi ukungalingani nokungakhuseleki kwisizwe okanye kwingingqi enye kuneziphumo kukhuseleko lwehlabathi kwaye kusemdleni wazo zonke izizwe ukuchophela imibandela engunobangela yophuhliso.